In particular, there have been three significant shifts in micromobility that deserve investigation and discussion. First, the relationship between the major players in the micromobility industry and the cities in which they largely operate has moved from adversarial and chaotic to something that is generally cooperative and business-like. In the early years, scooter sharing companies would open up for business without any warning or municipal approval by simply placing hundreds of scooters at locations throughout the target area. In 2018, the City of San Francisco issued a cease and desist order to Bird, Spin and Lime shortly after they had launched their e-scooter business because the city had received over 1,900 complaints. Most cities now have regulations in place that typically require the scooter sharing companies to obtain a license from the city, share revenue and usage data, and operate within strict guidelines. And scooter sharing companies, to their credit, have generally complied and have dropped their act-now-seek-permission-later business tactics.
Second, ownership patterns and user demographics have changed substantially. At first, the industry was dominated by the large sharing companies, and new companies were seemingly being formed each month as entrepreneurs raised millions in venture capital. Those days are largely gone and many of the early players have either merged with other companies, pulled out of the less lucrative markets, or gone bankrupt. Although a few sharing companies still remain (and are at least approaching profitability), many of the sharing services are run by either not-for-profit entities or by partnerships between a for-profit company and a governmental or quasi-governmental agency.
Third, innovations in both e-scooter and e-bike design have absolutely exploded. Potential buyers are faced with a dizzying array of choices in form, performance, appearance and price. Traditional manufacturers and retailers are still active, but many new manufacturing start-ups have entered the micromobility industry, often focused on just a few products that serve a specific niche. Many of these start-ups are using a direct-to-the-consumer marketing strategy which broadens their reach and appeals to younger generations.
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| Honda Motocompacto |
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| BMW CE 02 |
Anyway, the point is that micromobility transportation is a hot market at the moment, at least for certain segments of the population. My goal for the remainder of this post will be to give you a glimpse of not only what has happened recently, but where I think the industry is going (or perhaps should go). I am going to focus solely on the electrified portion of the micromobility arena because that is where the excitement is. Human powered bikes (and even skateboards) are still popular and play a role in transportation but have not changed much in the past couple of years.
Blurring Boundaries
One of the problems with rapid innovation is that product definitions that were once reasonably distinct and well understood become very blurry. New products have been introduced that overlap with other product categories, particularly in terms of performance. This makes the development of regulations for licensing and operation extremely difficult and the result has been a quagmire of laws that vary from city to city and appear to be largely unenforced.
An attempt to bring order to the chaos was made in 2014 when PeopleForBikes, an industry trade group, started promoting an e-bike classification scheme which has subsequently been adopted by the majority of e-bike manufacturers. The system groups e-bikes into three classes based upon operational capabilities and top speed. [1]
Class 1 bikes are pedal-assist designs where the motor provides power to assist the rider only when the rider is pedaling. Typically, these bikes have torque or cadence sensors that add assistance in proportion to how hard or how fast the rider is pedaling. In addition, the electric motor provides assistance only up to a maximum speed of 20 miles per hour.
Class 2 bikes are also limited to an assisted top speed of 20 miles per hour but come equipped with a throttle that can control power from the motor whether the rider is pedaling or not. Most Class 2 bikes have both pedal assist sensors and throttles.
Class 3 bikes have a motor-assisted top speed of 28 miles per hour (and must have a speedometer) but they may or may not have a throttle. Many states have adopted laws that govern how different classes of bikes can be operated, but the rules governing Class 3 bikes tend to be particularly fractured. California, for example, doesn’t allow Class 3 bikes to have a throttle. New York, on the other hand, allows throttles but only if they are limited to a maximum assisted speed of 20 MPH.
More than 30 states have adopted regulations based on these three categories which sounds great in theory but which breaks down in practice. For example, Class 3 bikes are generally prohibited from riding on bike/hike trails that mix bike riders and pedestrians. Unfortunately, most Class 3 bikes are visually indistinguishable from Class 2 bikes and many Class 3 bikes have settings that can limit them to Class 2 speeds which makes them legal on bike/hike trails in most jurisdictions. You can see why enforcement would be problematic.
In addition, there are bike companies that simply ignore the entire classification system and produce e-bikes that go beyond the 28 MPH maximum speed. Even bikes that in theory are constrained to Class 2 or Class 3 standards can be easily hacked to remove those restrictions by simply watching a YouTube video or two. Moreover, the details of bike regulations vary from state to state, are not widely publicized, and are sometimes overridden by city or county requirements. All in all, the number of bike riders who know the laws in their home city is probably modest and the number who bother to research the laws in other places before they travel is probably minuscule.
Finally, none of this applies to e-scooters which became popular after the classification system was developed. Since e-bikes and e-scooters have similar operational characteristics you would think that someone would develop an expanded system that includes both types of devices, but that has not happened. Consequently, e-scooters often fall into a legal gray zone where deciphering what rules apply is challenging at best.
As a remedy to all this confusion, I’m going to propose my own classification system and, at the end of this post, my own regulatory framework to govern e-bike and e-scooter operations.
E-Scooter (Moped). This type of vehicle (which I will refer to as an e-moped) is intended to be ridden in the street in mixed traffic and consequently comes equipped with headlights, taillights, turn signals and a horn. Its form is similar to a Vespa-type scooter and it does not have the ability to be pedaled. It would be distinguished from a motorcycle based upon its power or top speed (whatever each State uses to distinguish between the two).
E-Scooter (Kickscooter). This is what most people commonly think of when the term “e-scooter” is discussed (and it is the term I will use for this post). It has two or three wheels (12 inches in diameter or less), a platform that allows the rider to stand, a vertical post with handlebars for steering, and a throttle for controlling the power to the electric motor.
E-Bike (Pedal Assist Only). This is a two- or three-wheeled vehicle that has pedals for moving the bike forward and an electric motor for assisting that forward movement. A throttle is not allowed and the amount of assistance provided by the motor must be related to speed or effort used by the rider in pedaling.
E-Bike (Throttle Enabled). This is a two- or three-wheeled vehicle that has pedals for moving the bike forward as well as an electric motor that can either assist the pedaling process or move the e-bike forward without pedaling. Some type of throttle is part of this type of e-bike.
Note that these definitions are simple and physical so that determinations can be made visually. I have avoided criteria based on speed or power because they are too hard to verify and are likely to become outmoded as technology improves.
Recent Developments
Although micromobility in general has been growing, that growth has not been uniform across all four product categories. Similarly, the prospects for the future are not the same either. Below is my take on how each micromobility type has fared recently and what to expect over the next couple of years.
E-Moped. This product type is booming in Asia and to a somewhat lesser extent in Europe, but has not become particularly popular in the US. This e-scooter format (excuse me, e-moped) is available for purchase, generally between $2,500 and $8,000, but dealers are limited. My original post on e-mopeds included a first-person review of an e-moped sharing service in Brooklyn operated by Revel. They have since ended that venture and have shifted primarily to a ride hailing service that uses EVs exclusively.
My guess on why e-mopeds are not more popular is that they offer almost no performance advantages over throttle-enabled e-bikes and yet are likely to cost considerably more. There is also the problem of charging in which e-mopeds get stuck in a bit of a no-man’s land. They generally cannot use the charging stations that are available for electric cars, and their increased size and weight make them less convenient to charge at home than an e-bike. In Asia, e-mopeds have successfully developed swappable battery stations located throughout major metropolitan areas, but US cities are likely too spread out for that strategy to work here.
Most e-mopeds are limited to no more than 28 or 30 mph so that they can be driven with just a standard driver’s license, but that also limits their usefulness, especially in spread out midwestern cities where traffic on major streets typically travels at 35 to 45 mph. There are products that go much faster (and thus trigger the need for a motorcycle license), but thus far haven’t been produced at high volumes. My guess is that this will remain a niche product for the foreseeable future.
E-Scooter. E-scooters in kickscooter form are far more common and are what most people think of when e-scooters are discussed. This product type burst onto the scene in 2017 as the focus of a new breed of dockless sharing services by Bird, Lime, Spin and others, and by 2019 was commonplace in major cities across the country. As with many forms of new technology, the early euphoria generates a great deal of both hyperbole and consternation. New scooter sharing services were popping up in city after city with promises of revolutionizing urban transportation and many people found them to be both fun and useful. Meanwhile, pedestrians, shop owners and automobile drivers generally cursed the haphazard way in which e-scooters were being driven and parked.
As with most new technologies, the euphoria eventually fades, start-ups consolidate into a few long-term players, and operations are adjusted to reduce the most common complaints. The focus shifts from growth-at-all-costs to professional management and eventual profitability – and not many companies can make that transition. For example, in September of 2023 Bird bought out Spin, one of the early pioneers in the industry. Three months later, in December of 2023, Bird (once valued at over $2 Billion) announced that it was filing for bankruptcy. While the company is still operating and may eventually re-emerge in a slimmed down form, it is a stark reminder that early notoriety and market share don’t always translate into a company that can survive in the long run.
The number of rides reported by scooter sharing services boomed for the first few years but have tailed off as of late. The most recent report on micromobility by the National Association of City Transportation Officials (NACTO) reveals that total scooter sharing rides are down 10 percent from the previous year and down 35 percent from the peak year of 2018. The COVID pandemic obviously had an impact, but scooter sharing has not bounced back the way that bike sharing has, which means that scooter sharing companies have had to adapt to a “new normal” in terms of ridership and revenue expectations. [2] Part of the problem is that e-scooters appear to be more prone to accidents than e-bikes – small wheels and high speeds make road imperfections dangerous – and the cost per trip tends to be higher for scooter sharing than bike sharing.
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| Apollo Pro E-scooter |
What has saved the day for e-scooter manufacturers has been the rise of private ownership. Rather than renting from a sharing service, people are simply buying their own e-scooter and keeping it with them for the entire trip. Lightweight scooters can easily be folded up and carried onto mass transit, and beefier scooters are fast enough and comfortable enough to be used for relatively long, end-to-end rides. For example, the Apollo Pro pictured here has dual motors, dual brakes, a sophisticated suspension, a top speed over 40 mph, a range of roughly 50 miles, and a price over $3,000. These are scooters that are fast enough to be ridden in traffic in many urban environments and yet “bike-like” enough to use bike lanes and bike trails where available. At the same time, they are seen as environmentally friendly and small enough to be walked into an office building, taken up the elevator, and parked by your desk.
Despite the recent downward trend, I expect scooter sharing numbers to level off and perhaps even increase slightly in the future. Scooter sharing services make sense in pedestrian-rich environments like a downtown area, a tourism district, or a college campus. This is particularly true if there are bike lanes or bike trails that scooter riders can safely use and if scooter systems are integrated into a partnership with the city, the transit system and other micromobility providers. Integrated systems are much more likely to be both profitable and well received by the public. Meanwhile, private ownership is likely to increase and to be seen – particularly by the younger generations – as a replacement for trips in a car. In the end, e-scooters in all their forms are likely to continue making urban transportation greener, more flexible and less congested.
E-Bike (Pedal assist only). The U.S. (and much of the western world) is getting older. E-bikes have proven to be hugely popular with this growing group of seniors, many of whom had given up their traditional bikes because they required too much effort to deal with hills, distance and wind. In particular, the pedal assist form of e-bike feels very much like riding a traditional bike but with an ease and speed that seem almost magical. Many bike sharing services are including e-bikes in their rental mix because of their popularity. Sharing companies that have both types of bikes often find that the e-bikes are used at least twice as much on a rides-per-bike basis. Bike share ridership has gone up by 33 percent in the U.S. and Canada over the past five years despite a significant COVID-related pull-back in 2020, largely due in my opinion to the rise of e-bikes.
Pedal-assist e-bikes are also popular with younger generations, particularly those whose reasons for riding lean away from exercise and toward simply having fun or toward a practical form of transportation. Interestingly enough, despite the perceived lack of effort involved with an e-bike, several recent studies have shown that people who ride pedal-assist e-bikes often get more exercise than traditional bike riders. The reason is that e-bike riders ride farther and more frequently. Their heart rate might be somewhat lower but the increase in time spent biking more than makes up for that shortfall. [3] I have owned a pedal-assist e-bike for roughly a year and my experience validates that conclusion.
Recent innovations in this category of e-bike have been more evolutionary than revolutionary – e-bikes are simply getting better and better. As their popularity has grown, more options are available although the number of manufacturers has not expanded dramatically. Traditional bike brands predominate and prices tend to be relatively high. Still, I expect sales volumes to continue to grow at a steady rate.
E-Bike (Throttle Enabled). The real growth in e-bikes – and the real innovation in bike design – has occurred in this category. Perhaps this is due to the preponderance of throttle-enabled e-bike manufacturers being young companies, a few of which literally started with tinkering in the garage. Such is the case with Mike Radenbaugh, the founder of Rad Power Bikes, who cobbled together miscellaneous parts to build his “Frankenbike” that could get him to high school without breaking a sweat. The formal business started in 2007 and is now one of the largest e-bike companies in North America. They make a wide range of models – cargo bikes, city commuters, trail bikes, folding bikes and more – all e-bikes with both pedal assist sensors and a throttle. Most models come with dozens of potential accessories that allow buyers to tailor the bike to their specific needs. Other brands – Juiced, Ride1Up, Lectric, Aventon, and many more – have followed a similar creative and entrepreneurial playbook. Throttle enabled e-bikes now outsell pedal-assist only e-bikes by a considerable margin.
Most e-bikes of this type are shipped with a Class 2 configuration setting (max 20 mph), but they are often easily readjusted to a Class 3 setting (max 28 mph). Some bikes now come with a “race mode” that does away with speed limitations entirely, or can be easily hacked to accomplish the same thing. Top speeds are still generally in the mid-30s, but this capability plus the option to minimize pedaling by using the throttle have essentially converted e-bikes into mini-motorcycles without any of the traditional licensing and training requirements. No one knows how many riders take advantage of higher speeds or throttle only operation, but it is not a trivial percentage.
In dense urban areas, throttle-enabled e-bikes have become particularly popular with delivery drivers. An e-bike is easier to maneuver through traffic, easier to park, and often just as fast as driving a car – without any need for licensing, car insurance, gas and expensive repairs. Cargo specific designs come with ranges of around 40 miles (more with a second battery to swap in) and carrying capacities of 300 pounds or more (including the rider). No wonder delivery services such as Doordash and Grubhub specifically recruit e-bike riders in certain areas.
All in all, throttle enabled e-bikes seem likely to continue their rapid rise in popularity. Not only do they appeal to traditional bike riders looking for a power boost, they also have co-opted the market for moped style e-scooters. Why buy an e-moped when an e-bike option has similar performance, more configuration options, and a lower price?
Trouble in Paradise
In many respects, the micromobility industry is thriving, but there are storm clouds on the horizon. In particular, battery fires and accidents caused by reckless riders threaten to derail the boom before it really takes off.
The lithium-ion battery packs that power both e-scooters and e-bikes can overheat during the re-charging process, leading to off-gassing, fires and even explosions. The problem is particularly severe if the battery pack is damaged, if the battery is cheaply manufactured (and doesn’t comply with UL standards), or if the battery is overcharged. The resulting fires are extremely hot and can spread rapidly. Some urban fire departments consider micromobility battery fires to be their fastest growing fire risk.
A more insidious problem is bad behavior by e-scooter and e-bike riders. Right now, regulatory constraints on micromobility devices are relatively light in the U.S. That could change, however, if increasing numbers and increasing speeds start to threaten the traditional domains of pedestrians and automobiles. The problem is most acute where transportation volumes are highest or where transportation facilities are inadequate. And while new technology frequently causes behavioral norms to change in uncomfortable ways, this situation has the potential to spiral dangerously out of control. Let me illustrate with three recent examples.
A ban in Paris. A few months ago, Parisians voted to ban e-scooter sharing services from their city, although privately owned e-scooters are still allowed. The vote was overwhelming – roughly 90 percent supported the ban – although turnout was extremely low with less than eight percent of eligible voters bothering to participate. The primary objections appear to be the result of aggressive riders routinely speeding past startled pedestrians, hundreds of e-scooter accidents including three that resulted in fatalities, and careless parking habits that cluttered crowded sidewalks. David Belliard, a deputy mayor in charge of urban mobility, was quoted as saying “The anarchy was quite unbearable.” [4]
The ban underscores two basic issues. The first is that e-scooters and pedestrians do not mix well. Paris is a very walkable city and e-scooters were seen as a threat to that walkability. The sidewalk is the traditional domain of the pedestrian and e-scooters disrupt the perceived safety of that environment because they travel at 4 or 5 times the speed of the average walker. Move e-scooters into the street and they annoy drivers who are often driving at twice the speed in vehicles that are 20 times bigger. The second issue is that dockless sharing systems almost inevitably create clutter in the public realm. Most e-scooter riders try to do the right thing when they park, but a few bad actors (or a few clueless actors) can spoil the whole thing. Dockless systems are a major convenience for the rider, but mostly a pain in the ass for everyone else.
Delivery licensing in Hoboken. One of the enduring changes from the COVID pandemic is the popularity of food delivery services such as Uber Eats, Doordash and Grubhub. As noted earlier, delivery via e-bike is common in more urbanized neighborhoods but it is not without problems. Hoboken, New Jersey, is an upscale, moderately dense community right across the Hudson River from New York City. Throttle enabled e-bikes delivering food orders are commonplace, particularly on the main drag of Washington Street. Pedestrians and sidewalk dining are also commonplace and therein lies the rub. The sidewalks are simply not wide enough to accommodate e-bike delivery riders, so pedestrians feel unsafe. As a result, Hoboken is in the process of requiring that e-bike delivery drivers get registered with the city, pass a test on local laws, and wear a fluorescent vest printed with their license number. The idea is to make them visible, knowledgeable, and responsible for their actions. [6]
This approach contains a fair amount of common sense, but the devil is in the details. In order to be fairly enforced, the Police Department will need additional manpower that will probably need to be either on foot or on their own e-bikes. This will not be simple or cheap, and the litmus test of this new ordinance will be whether the community is willing to pay the price necessary for its enforcement. Second, being a food delivery driver is a low-paying job that falls largely to the low-income immigrant community. These regulations land squarely on that group but omit the corporations behind the delivery industry. Shouldn’t Grubhub, Uber Eats and Doordash (et al) have some responsibility? Stay tuned as this plays out because I am confident that ordinances like Hoboken’s will be replicated across the country.
A fatality in Key Biscayne. In February of this year, a 12-year old boy riding an e-bike collided with a 66-year old woman riding a traditional bike who later died from her injuries. Reports of the incident have not placed blame on either rider, but local city council members were quick to cite this incident as proof of the dangers of e-bikes and e-scooters. Interestingly, the boy was wearing a helmet and sustained only minor cuts and bruises, while the woman was not wearing a helmet. [5] Regardless, the Key Biscayne Council promptly passed a 60-day ban on all e-scooters and e-bikes from the public streets. The City had previously banned them from public parks. As of this writing, the ban is likely to be extended for several months while a permanent solution is discussed.
Once again, this news item brings a couple of issues to mind. First, teens and pre-teens have adopted e-bikes and e-scooters as a way to expand their personal mobility without much parental oversight. As I pointed out earlier, these devices are essentially mini-motorcycles but without any training or licensing. While mobility is generally a good thing, teens and pre-teens aren’t known for having great judgment and they have only limited knowledge of traffic laws and safe driving practices. Second, there is a clear tendency for e-bike and e-scooter riders (of all ages) to assume that traffic laws which apply to cars do not apply to them. Consequently, they can frequently be seen riding through stop signs or red lights, weaving between cars that are stuck in traffic, and alternating between traffic lanes, bike lanes and sidewalks depending upon which route seems fastest. As a long-time bike rider myself, I understand the desire to maintain momentum but that does not excuse the seemingly oblivious actions of some riders. The problem is that traffic laws were written primarily for cars and there is a need for some modifications as they pertain to bikes and scooters. Traffic laws need to be re-imagined to take into account the reality of mixed-mode traffic and micromobility riders need to comply with the results.
A New Regulatory Framework
Finding the right balance between pedestrians, bikes, scooters and cars is going to require blending a variety of viewpoints and take a considerable amount of trial and error. I’m going to share my thoughts on the subject but I’m certainly not going to claim that I have all the answers.
Before I get into regulations, however, it is important to point out that no amount of regulatory adjustment changes the need for a dramatic increase in protected bike lanes – the best location for e-scooters and e-bikes. Micromobility devices have the potential to change urban transportation in a way that is fun, efficient, and environmentally friendly. But that potential will not be realized until the infrastructure we build supports all forms of transportation – not just the car.
First, I would propose that micromobility devices (traditional bikes, e-bikes and e-scooters) all be treated the same for the sake of regulation. Yes, there are differences but the similarities are far more numerous. They occupy about the same amount of space, they have about the same degree of maneuverability, they have similar braking capabilities, and the people who ride them share similar vulnerabilities in an accident. There can be differences in speed, but not so much as to justify separate treatment. In general, all these devices travel between 10 and 25 mph on level ground, with the vast majority in the 12 to 18 mph range. Regulations should focus on speed and behavior, not on the specific type of device.
Second, I think cities should be able to prohibit bikes and scooters from certain streets under certain conditions, just like farmers aren’t allowed to drive their tractors on interstate highways. This may be sacrilege to the bike riding community, but I think it would save a fair number of lives. Streets that carry high volumes of traffic at relatively high speeds (e.g. 40 - 45 mph) would be obvious candidates because the disruptive effect of a slow-moving vehicle is so great and the potential for serious injury or death is so high. However, cities should be responsible for having a parallel alternative route in place before the prohibition is made. Bike and scooter riders need to be able to reach all parts of the community.
Third, sidewalks should generally be reserved for pedestrians only. There will probably need to be a few exceptions to this rule, but pedestrians are too important in the transportation hierarchy to allow them to be threatened by bikes and scooters traveling at a much higher rate of speed. Sidewalks have a unique role in building the character of a neighborhood or commercial district – one that should not be undermined by trying to make them do double duty as a bike lane. I’m sure there are parents who think that a sidewalk is the only safe place for their child to ride their bike or scooter, but I disagree. If parents can’t teach their child to ride safely in the street (including knowing which streets to avoid), then the child is probably too young to be riding a bike or e-scooter. Where exceptions are made to this rule (a college campus, perhaps), bikes and scooters should be limited to a speed of 10 or 12 mph whenever pedestrians are present and sidewalks should be at least 8 feet wide.
Fourth, more states should adopt what are commonly referred to as “Idaho stop” laws. This is a law that allows a bike rider (including an e-bike or e-scooter rider) to treat a stop sign as a yield sign. The rider should slow down when approaching the intersection and yield to any cross-traffic, but otherwise would not be required to stop completely unless traffic conditions require a stop. This type of law acknowledges the way bike riders typically ride and makes side streets far more attractive to bike and scooter traffic. I would not, however, extend this rule to traffic signals (with the possible exception of situations where the signal does not sense that a rider is waiting and there is no cross traffic).
Fifth, on multi-lane streets where no bike lane is available, bike and scooter riders who can maintain a speed of 15 mph or better should occupy an entire lane. In fact, in congested city centers it might be more efficient for all traffic to move at 15 to 20 mph which would allow e-scooters and e-bikes to mix freely with other traffic. What is clear is that it is not safe for bike or scooter riders traveling at speed to be relegated to the gutter or shoulder area while cars blow by at 35 mph. Cars need to learn to share the road or cities need to find the money to build protected bike lanes. At the same time, if traffic is stopped at a red light, bike and scooter riders need to stay in their lane and should not cut around cars by using the gutter or lane line areas.
Sixth, on a mixed-use trail, bikes and e-scooters should be limited to 12 or 15 mph where pedestrians are present. In addition, they need to provide at least 3 feet of buffer room when passing a pedestrian, and provide an audible warning (voice, bell or buzzer) several seconds before passing. I am tempted to suggest that pedestrians should be banned but such trails are so popular that I think that is unlikely to happen. Unfortunately, they become hazardous if micromobility riders treat them as their own personal expressway. Again, the problem is the potential speed differential between someone walking their dog or pushing their stroller at 3 mph and someone riding an e-bike at 20 mph. Passing notifications should also apply to bike lanes if a bike or e-scooter rider is passing someone significantly slower.
Conclusions
I suspect that these issues will not be fully resolved any time soon. The innovation in micromobility is going to continue and the rising popularity of these devices is going to force communities to rethink the way streets are designed and traffic laws are enforced. The end result will be better options for everyone but the transition from where we are to where we need to be will be complicated – and unfortunately, dangerous.
Notes:
1. Matt Jancer; “What Are Ebike ‘Classes’ and What Do They Mean?”; Wired; October 2023; https://www.wired.com/story/guide-to-ebike-classes/
2. National Association of City Transportation Officials; “Shared Micromobility in the U.S. and Canada: 2022”; https://nacto.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/NACTO_sharedmicromobilitysnapshot_correctedNov3-2023-1.pdf
3. Courtney Holden; “Can You Get Exercise Riding an Electric Bike?”; June 2021; REI Uncommon Path; https://www.rei.com/blog/cycle/can-you-get-exercise-riding-an-e-bike
4. “Rental e-scooters cleared from Paris streets as ban comes into effect”; Le Monde; September, 2023; https://www.lemonde.fr/en/transport/article/2023/09/01/rental-e-scooters-cleared-from-paris-streets-as-ban-comes-into-effect_6118982_216.html#:~:text=mourned%20by%20others.-,The%20French%20capital%20is%20the%20first%20in%20Europe%20to%20completely,them%20would%20reduce%20%22nuisance.%22
5. Tony Winton and John Pacenti; “Ebike crash leaves cyclist dead in Key Biscayne”; February 2024; Key Biscayne Independent; https://kbindependent.org/2024/02/15/scooter-crash-leaves-cyclist-dead-in-key-biscayne/
6. Carren Lissner; “E-Bike Food Deliverers Will Need License in Hoboken If Plan Passes”; February 2024; Patch.com; https://patch.com/new-jersey/hoboken/e-bike-food-deliverers-will-need-license-hoboken-if-plan-passes
